Political competition is expected to become less particularistic as prosperity rises and a middle class
emerges. But particularistic linkages persist despite rising wealth in urban Ghana. Politicians are unable
to commit to campaign promises with voters who want large-scale public policies, many of whom
are in the middle class. This creates incentives to avoid mobilizing many of these voters and to ignore
their preferences. As a result, voters who want major public policies rather than patronage differentially
refrain from participation, allowing the electorate and party organizations to be dominated by poorer voters.
But this may only reinforce politicians’ incentives against making policy appeals, stalling emergence
of more policy-based electoral competition even as the middle class grows.