Since the 1970s, female-headed households (FHHs) in developing countries have
often been used in development literature as a proxy for poverty and vulnerability.
In reality the profile of women-headed households is diverse; they include, at the
least, rich and poor women, aged widows as well as young single mothers and
wives of migrant workers, educated professionals and semi-literate manual
labourers. This diversity of characteristics, with its attendant diversity of
experience and vulnerability unfolds a picture of heterogeneity, rather than
homogeneity. Yet, despite ample evidence that FHHs are, in fact, heterogeneous
and not homogeneous, contemporary research and practice remains caught
dominantly within the „poverty-vulnerability‟ nexus. The heterogeneity of female
headship is undermined by conventional notions of homogeneity. It is this gap
that the present research addresses. Drawing on interdisciplinary perspectives
especially from demography, gender studies; particularly gender and development,
risk and vulnerability studies, as well as scholarship on social capital, this thesis
employs a „heterogeneity‟ lens to specifically examine the complexities of
household formation, economic conditions and social relations of FHHs in Sri
Lanka, in an attempt to explore their vulnerabilities and resilience.
The choice of Sri Lanka as the context for this study is grounded in the
demographic reality of a relatively high, and consistently increasing, proportion of
households headed by women since the 1970s. By 2009/10, FHHs accounted for
nearly one-quarter of all households, throughout the country. In order to capture
the geographical and social diversity of FHHs, empirical research was conducted
in three contrasting types of district in Sri Lanka, encompassing urban, rural, and
estate sectors. Two main data collection strategies were employed in a mixed
methods approach: a sample survey of a cross-section of 534 FHHs, and in-depth
interviews with 32 female heads purposively selected from among the survey
participants. The findings and discussions include quantitative statistical and
qualitative thematic analyses based on primary data, combined with secondary
data from censuses, national survey reports and micro-studies of FHHs in Sri
Lanka.
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The key findings show the diversity in profile of FHHs in the sample: they range
from single person to large extended households. While some households consist
of only the woman head and her young children, others comprise aged parents and
a woman head. Households were also constituted of „working-age‟ household
members, including the female heads who were totally reliant on others for
income and other resources. The study also revealed novel findings that challenge
the emphasis of most conventional perceptions of poverty and female headship.
From an economic perspective, the results show women from rich households can
be personally poor, lacking, among others, in skills to manage household
economies, while women in low-income brackets may be resilient, enterprising
and satisfied with their needs, despite their apparent poverty. Finally, the thesis
highlights the significant role of social capital, a relatively under-researched area
in relation to FHHs. The findings reveal that many female heads in Sri Lanka are
rich in social capital, a resource in its own right for these women. However, social
capital itself needs to be disaggregated into „support networks‟ and „leverage
networks‟ to understand the role it plays in providing long-term security and
resilience. The results show that the majority of FHHs in the sample had access to
support networks that provide day-to-day subsistence, but which did not offer
them prospects to leverage out of their current situation.